The White Book: Avalanche Awareness Provided by RECCO

Avalanche Education
To get you started in developing your backcountry skills, K2 has partnered with RECCO®, makers of an avalanche rescue system utilized by more than 600 rescue organizations worldwide to assist in the efficient location of burials. As a manufacturer dedicated to safety in the mountains, RECCO® has provided content from The White Book, an introduction to avalanches and how to stay alive in avalanche terrain. We hope you will read The White Book and continue your education by attending avalanche awareness programs.

The White Book: Avalanche Awareness Provided by RECCO®

The White Book was produced by RECCO® and by Dale Atkins, one of the industry’s leading avalanche researchers and educators from Colorado. With decades of mountain rescue and professional ski patrol experience, Dale is a long-time representative to ICAR (International Commission for Alpine Rescue) and serves as the Search and Rescue Committee Chairman with the American Avalanche Association. In 2006, Atkins was awarded by the Mountain Rescue Association for his “Outstanding Contribution to Avalanche Education and Safety.”

AVALANCHE SAFETY
Avalanche safety and survival requires you to gain knowledge and experience of snow, avalanches and rescue. Avalanches are a danger for anyone who enjoys snow. Anyone who is slightly athletic can easily find himself or herself in avalanche terrain. Many avalanche accidents occur near ski areas when someone ventures out-of-bounds in search of powder snow and untracked slopes.

“Knowledge and information about snow and avalanches are the keys to preventing avalanche accidents.”

Staying alive in avalanche terrain not only involves learning about avalanches but also travelling with experienced and practiced companions, carrying rescue equipment and knowing how to use it, obeying ski area signs and warnings, being flexible about when and where to go, and lastly, being able to say “not today”.

The following information and tips are intended to help you and your friends stay safer in avalanche terrain.

The White Book - How Does an Avalanche Happen?

WHAT IS AN AVALANCHE?
An avalanche is a mass of snow sliding down a mountainside. Avalanches come in all sizes.

• Small avalanches can fracture less than 30 centimeters deep, be 20–30 meters wide and travel at 50 km/hour.
• Medium avalanches may fracture 1–2 meters deep, have a width of 100–500 meters and travel at 100 km/hour.
• Large avalanches can be 2–3 meters deep, or deeper, have a width of 1000 meters or more, and travel at speeds of over 150 km/hour.
• An avalanche has four ingredients: a steep slope, a slab, a weak layer in the snow cover and a trigger.

TYPES OF AVALANCHES
There are two basic types of avalanches: loose snow and slab. Loose snow and slab avalanches can both release in dry snow, damp snow, or wet snow.

Loose snow avalanches occur in snow that lacks cohesion, such as fresh new snow that has not bonded, or wet snow that has lost its cohesion because of thaw. Loose snow avalanches are sometimes called point releases because the avalanche starts at a point and spreads out into a triangle as it slides down the mountainside. Loose snow avalanches tend to be small in size and seldom cause injury. However, the consequences of even a small loose snow avalanche can be very serious or even fatal if you are swept into a terrain trap.

Slab avalanches occur when one or more layers of snow have bonded into a cohesive slab. The slab can stay in place until the downhill stress exceeds the snow’s strength. The downhill stress is caused by gravity steadily pulling on the snow, and this stress can be increased by the added weight of new or wind-blown snow, or the weight of a person. When the slab fractures, cracks shoot out through the slab, and the snow breaks loose from its anchors at the top, sides and bottom. The snow-slab material can vary greatly. The slab can be very soft (excellent powder skiing) or very hard, like a wooden floor. Slab avalanches are the most dangerous for people and property because they can move large amounts of snow at high speed.

WHEN ARE AVALANCHES MOST LIKELY TO OCCUR?
The risk of an avalanche increases during major snowstorms and periods of thaw. More than three quarters of avalanches release during or just after large snowstorms. There is no rule of thumb on how much new snow will cause conditions to become dangerous, but the greater the snowfall, the greater the stress, the greater the danger. While most avalanches occur during a storm, many avalanche accidents occur shortly after a storm when the weather is nice but the snow remains unstable.

The faster the snow falls the faster the danger increases. For example, 30 cm of snow falling in six hours is far more dangerous than 30 cm falling in 24 hours. Someone once said, “The building blocks of an avalanche are made of snow, but wind is the builder.” This is especially true at higher elevations. Here, the wind can transport tremendous quantities of snow onto steep leeward slopes. The wind can strip snow off windward slopes and redeposit it onto leeward slopes at a much faster rate than snow falling from the clouds. When winds cause blowing snow the avalanche danger can quickly increase on leeward slopes.

Changes in snow temperature can create strong or weak layers of snow, significantly affecting snow stability.

Snow temperatures affect the rate at which snow gains or loses strength. Snow temperatures are strongly influenced by air temperature and solar radiation. Temperature trends are much more important than a single temperature reading. In a cold snowpack, unstable snow conditions persist because the strengthening process is slowed down. Even strong snow can loose strength making conditions unstable and more dangerous, especially when the snow is cold and shallow. Thus, dangerous avalanche conditions can persist for days or even weeks after a storm.

When snow is warm it typically settles quickly and becomes stronger and more stable. However, melt caused by intense warming, especially in the springtime, turns the snow wet and melts bonds between snow grains and snow layers. This can rapidly increase the threat of avalanches. A slope that is stable in the morning can become unstable by afternoon.

WHERE DO AVALANCHES OCCUR?
Avalanches occur on steep slopes that make for great skiing and snowboarding. Slope angle is the most important factor leading to avalanches. As the slope angle increases, so too does the stress exerted on the snow. Most avalanches (about 90%) release on slopes of 30-45 degrees. When the snow is very unstable it is possible to trigger an avalanche from shallow or even flat slopes below steep slopes. The fractures can start at the bottom of the slope and then propagate upslope, releasing the slab. It is akin to pulling out the bottom log from a woodpile.

Avalanches release most often on leeward slopes (facing away from the wind). Winds strip away snow from windward slopes and redeposit the snow as a slab layer on leeward slopes. The way a slope faces the sun is also important. In the Northern Hemisphere slopes facing away from the sun (northerly aspects) may have a colder and typically weaker snowpack, especially in early and mid-winter that is more apt to avalanche than southerly-facing slopes. However, south aspects (facing the sun) can be more prone to wet avalanches during spring and periods of thaw.

If the slope is steep enough and the snow weak enough, avalanches can run on any slope no matter how short or how long. Trees, bushes, and rocks tend to anchor the snow but do not necessarily prevent avalanches. Once an avalanche releases it can flow through trees and rocks. Most avalanches occur in the backcountry, outside developed ski areas. Within ski areas ski patrols use a combined program of monitoring, compaction, and explosives to provide safe and enjoyable conditions. However, off piste or out-of-bounds, there is no such program. By simply passing under a 6-millimeter strand of rope one goes from a safe and managed environment to the uncertainty of the wilderness.

“Avalanches occur on steep slopes that make for great skiing and snowboarding.”

The White Book - Recognizing and Managing Avalanche Terrain

HOW TO KEEP FROM GETTING CAUGHT IN AN AVALANCHE
You can reliably avoid avalanches by recognizing and avoiding avalanche terrain. But this recommendation is not practical for many people who enjoy steep slopes and powder snow. Recreating in avalanche terrain is all about taking risks, and taking risks must be tempered with good judgment. You cannot eliminate all risk if you travel in avalanche terrain, but you can minimize risk by using good technique, such as: climbing, descending, or crossing avalanche areas one person at a time; climbing or descending the edge of a slope rather than the center; crossing a slope at the very top or bottom, if possible; carrying avalanche rescue gear; and knowing how to use it, and turning back or altering your route if you detect signs of unstable snow.

HOW TO RECOGNIZE AVALANCHE TERRAIN
Most large avalanche paths are obvious: an open slope, bowl, or gully above timberline that leads to a swath through the trees. But small avalanche paths in the trees can be just as dangerous. Since slope angle is the most important factor for avalanches, it is important to judge slope steepness accurately. An inclinometer – a device that measures slope steepness – is a great tool to help identify avalanche slopes. You should also look out for wind-deposited snow on the steeper slopes. Trees and rocks do not necessarily provide anchorage to snow and prevent avalanches. Avalanches can run in between trees and large rocks.

Also bent or damaged trees are good clues showing where avalanches have run in the past and may run again.

HOW CAN YOU RECOGNIZE UNSTABLE SNOW AND DANGEROUS AVALANCHE CONDITIONS?
Certainly any time weather conditions are adding stress (new snow, blowing snow) or reducing strength (prolonged cold or thaw) the avalanche danger may increase. When the snow cover is very unstable, nature often broadcasts clear danger signals. Recent avalanches are the best clue. Snow that cracks, collapses, or makes “whumpfing,” or hollow drum-like sounds is unstable. Weak layers that can be found by digging snow pits are signs of unstable snow. Snow that has become wet from thaw or rain can be dangerous. Even if you find no signs of unstable snow, you should always travel using the techniques listed earlier in How To Keep From Getting Caught In An Avalanche.

WHAT SHOULD YOU DO IF YOU ENCOUNTER UNSTABLE CONDITIONS?
When you find unstable snow conditions you should avoid avalanche prone terrain. This means staying off steep slopes. When snow is very unstable you should also avoid travelling beneath steep slopes, especially during storms. Unstable snow and steep slopes should always be avoided. If you are unsure about your ability to travel in avalanche prone terrain, consider hiring a professional, certified guide. Carefully choosing your terrain means you can keep skiing and riding in virtually all conditions.

WHAT RESCUE GEAR SHOULD YOU CARRY?
Whether you’re headed into remote backcountry or just outside the ski resort boundary, every backcountry skier should always carry the essential rescue gear: an avalanche transceiver (also known as a beacon), shovel, collapsible or ski-pole probe and Recco reflectors. You and your friends should frequently practice using all of these tools together for proficiency. While the avalanche transceiver is the primary rescue tool for companion search for backcountry skiers, Recco reflectors integrated into your clothing add a very valuable additional search mechanism in the backcountry. Today organized rescue teams can be notified sooner and travel faster to accidents then ever before, and the Recco system can cut search time dramatically if a companion search becomes a professional search.

In addition to the transceiver, probe, shovel, and Recco reflectors, there are other devices that may help save your life. The inflatable ABS avalanche airbag helps to prevent burial by keeping you on the surface of the slide debris; the AvaLung device creates an artificial air pocket and buys time for the buried victim; and the Avalanche Ball can serve as a surface marker guiding rescuers toward the buried person.

MINIMIZE RISK AND SURVIVE AVALANCHES
Most avalanche victims, or someone in their group, trigger the slide that catches them. Therefore, most accidents are preventable. Accidents usually happen because of ignorance, arrogance, overconfidence, or distractions.

• Ignorance can be overcome by avalanche education and by reading the avalanche bulletin.
• Arrogance can be overcome by recognizing that even you make a mistake.
• Overconfidence can be overcome by expecting the unexpected.
• Distractions can be overcome by focusing on the terrain, weather, and snow conditions.

WHAT ARE SOME COMMON MISTAKES MADE BY AVALANCHE VICTIMS?
Perhaps the most common mistake is simply not thinking about avalanches. Most people never experience an avalanche. They ski and ride steep slopes and never experience an avalanche, but they do experience powder and remember the fantastic experience. Over a winter, or many winters, people repeat this process of riding steep slopes and not experiencing avalanches. Past experiences become representative of what they expect to happen today. Their memories reveal no avalanches in the past, so there should be no avalanches today. If you do not understand snow and avalanches but keep venturing into avalanche terrain, you are playing a deadly game of Russian Roulette.

Eventually your luck will run out. Here are more common mistakes made by avalanche victims:

• Rushing for first tracks.
• Thinking the snow is safe because they are in the trees.
• Thinking they’re safe because they are with an expert skier or rider. Just because someone is an “expert” skier or rider, does not also mean they are an avalanche expert.
• Thinking the snow is safe because others have gone before them.
• Thinking they’re safe because they are in familiar terrain.
• Thinking the slope is safe because it is too small to avalanche.
• Thinking their rescue gear will let them survive an avalanche.

The White Book - Caught by an Avalanche

WHAT TO DO IF YOU ARE CAUGHT IN AN AVALANCHE?
Surviving avalanches depends on luck; therefore, it is always better to avoid them in the first place. Remember that only about one in three buried victims survive.

If you are caught:

• Try to escape to the side, or grab a tree or a rock.
• If you are knocked down, get rid of your poles and skis.
• Get your hands in front of your face to create an air pocket.
• Fight the avalanche by rolling to the side.
• If buried, try thrusting up a hand or a foot.

What can you do if someone else is caught?

• Watch your friend closely to establish a last seen area.
• If possible, alert rescue services by telephone by dialing 911 in North America and 112 in Europe, but do not go for help prematurely. Stay and search for as long as possible. In the wide-open spaces of North America cellular telephones may not always work. It is vital that you and your companions carry and know how to use avalanche rescue gear.
• Mark the spot where your friend was last seen and search down slope from this spot.
• Use your transceiver and watch for clues. If no transceivers, spot probe, then coarse probe likely burial areas.
• When the rescue helicopter arrives be sure that all gear is secured and do not approach the helicopter. Wait for a rescuer to come to you.
• Quickly and carefully dig out your friend. Be ready to treat for asphyxiation, impact injuries, shock, and hypothermia. Death can come in as little as a few minutes, but some victims survive for many hours under the snow. Some buried avalanche victims have survived for more than 1 day. All buried victims deserve the benefit of the doubt that they might be the next survivor.

The White Book - Learn About Current Conditions

LEARN ABOUT CURRENT AVALANCHE CONDITIONS
Throughout North America and Europe avalanche forecast centers prepare bulletins providing current and forecast snow and avalanche conditions. Some centers even prepare detailed mountain weather forecasts, too. Links to this information are available over the Internet or by recorded message on telephone hotlines. This information is for trip planning only, but it does give you an idea of what to expect. Once in the backcountry, you may encounter different conditions and may have to alter your route or plan in the interest of avalanche safety.

For a list of regional avalanche centers and bulletins, please see our Weather & Avalanche Links.

The White Book - Final Thoughts

SOME FINAL THOUGHTS
Just because the sky is blue, the snow soft and deep, and you are with capable and rescue-equipped friends, does not mean you should ski or ride that steep slope. Even before you reach that slope, you should be “thinking avalanche.” Pay attention to the three other necessary ingredients for an avalanche – slab, weak layer, and steep slope – as you are the fourth ingredient: the trigger. Are all ingredients present? Are other clues that indicate unstable snow and avalanches present, too? Discuss the situation with your companions. If you decide to go-for-it, stop and consider why your judgment might be wrong. This check might reveal something you missed or dismissed earlier in your decision-making process.

Lastly, evaluate conditions from the perspective of an avalanche. What may be important to you is not important to the avalanche. Remember avalanches don’t care about your friends, your goals, your schedule, your skills and knowledge, or how well equipped you are, or even that you are familiar with the area. If you think like an avalanche and think this might be a good place for an avalanche, it is time for you to look for a less steep slope or perhaps even to turn around.

ADDITIONAL AVALANCHE EDUCATION AND RESOURCES

USA:
www.AVALANCHE.org
www.AMERICANAVALANCHEASSOCIATION.org

CANADA
www.AVALANCHE.ca

EUROPE
www.LAWINEN.org

ABOUT RECCO®
RECCO® is an avalanche rescue system utilized by more than 600 rescue organizations worldwide to assist in the efficient location of burials. First introduced in 1983, the technology was developed by Magnus Granhed with the cooperation of Stockholm's Royal Institute of Technology in response to his personal experience with an avalanche tragedy. Since then, the system has proven itself effective in the field and been adopted by an extensive network of major ski resorts, helicopter skiing operations and search-and-rescue organizations in Europe, Japan, New Zealand and North America.

The RECCO® System is advanced rescue technology that enables fast searching and directional pinpointing of a victim’s precise location using harmonic radar. The two-part system consists of a RECCO® detector used by organized rescue groups and RECCO® reflectors that are integrated into apparel, helmets, protection gear or boots. A single searcher using a RECCO® detector can search 60,000 square meters per hour. The search time is slashed from hours (and in some cases days) to minutes. The RECCO® System provides a simple way to equip winter enthusiasts with a basic rescue system.

Outdoor enthusiasts must remember the RECCO® System is not intended for companion rescue and is not an alternative to transceiver use in the backcountry. Complementary in function, the system is an additional tool that does not interfere with other rescue methods such as avalanche dogs, transceiver searches or probe lines. The RECCO® System facilitates a faster organized search by rescuers and provides skiers and snowboarders with one more chance to be found in time.

For more information on RECCO®, please visit www.Recco.com